Topographic, climatic, and human influences are mainly responsible for the present distribution of natural vegetation and of fauna. Climatic changes in Europe, especially those since the Ice Age, have left their impact on the distribution of plants and animals. Man’s influence accounts for the fact that Europe’s original forested area pf close to 85%, only one-third remains, much of it second growth or the scrub forest of the Mediterranean area. The extensive grasslands of the southern parts of Russia also have been intensively cultivated.
The original pattern or a clear-cut vegetation distribution from south to north is obscure; its remnants are
only partly identifiable in the mountains. The distribution of Europe’s natural vegetation and fauna, especially of the vegetation, is set in a zonal arrangement, closely related to present climatic zones, though earlier climatic influences still have a minor impact. The zonal arrangement is less uniform for soil distribution because its formation is determined not only by climate, but also by underlying rock material, drainage conditions, vegetation, and temperature in relation to rainfall and evaporation. Following are the major European vegetation zones with their soil, flora, and fauna characteristics.Mediterranean Zone. The most widespread vegetation in the evergreen, small scrub forest, which has various names: maki in Corsica, maquis in France, and macchia in Italy. Important also are the oak (live and cork), oleander, laurel, juniper, and a great variety of thorny plants that blossom in spring and are dormant during the period of greatest heat. In higher altitudes, a few stands of chestnut, beech, and conifers from former continuous stands have remained. Overpasturing and the use of wood for charcoal have destroyed most forests and make reforestation difficult. The characteristic Mediterranean soil has red color (red podsolics). When it has a deep profile, it is highly productive. In Italy it is named terra rossa (“red earth”), but great differences exist depending on texture and on calcium or silica content. Alluvial lowlands and areas under irrigation, such as the Po plains and the huertas (“gardens”) of Spain, are intensively cultivated. Native plants such as the olive tree (which also grows wild), citrus, fig tree, stone fruit trees, and some date palms are cultivated. Remaining animal species include mountain sheep, wild goat, wild cat, and boar. Reptiles (vipers, snakes, turtles, lizards) are numerous.
Mixed Forest Zone. Broadleaf (deciduous) trees of this zone extend from northwestern Spain to the British Isles and southern Norway and to the western forelands of the Urals in the east. The zone is limited by excessive heat toward the south and by excessive cold toward the north. Above approximately 60° N. lat. northern (boreal) coniferous forests predominate. They also exist in higher altitudes of the Alpine mountains. The beech, elm, maple, and oak in the west, and the chestnut and pine on sandy soils, are most common. The beech, in combination with spruce and fir, predominates in central Europe, but in higher altitudes a combination of pine and larch is widespread.
The oak, together with coniferous trees in the north and with grasslands in the south, is prevalent over all of Eastern Europe. A variety of flora is found along the borders of the Mediterranean zone; different kinds of heather are common along the Baltic marshes. Most of the soils belong to the various podsolized subdivisions, with the color of the surface layers serving as the main characteristic. The most important are the brown and gray forest soils, which are very fertile and have been under cultivation for generations. Much of the original fauna has long been destroyed or reduced by man, including the wild ox, horse, bison, elk, and furred animals. Today the chamois, wild goat, and marmot are most widespread in the mountainous areas and the deer, fox, and badger throughout the entire zone.Northern Forest Zone. This zone consists predominately of a spruce-fir combination with an undergrowth of mosses, and includes Europe’s largest timber-growing region. The zone thins out toward the tundra in the north, where there are isolated stands of conifer and willow. The most common trees are the different species of spruce, pine, larch, and fir. Most of the soils are unproductive, heavily leached, acid, and often poorly drained and ash in color. The forests are rich in fur-bearing animals, including the bear, fox, wolf, badger, deer, and a large variety of birds.
Tundra Zone. Only a narrow strip along the Artic Sea and in the Scandinavian highlands (fjeld) falls within this zone. It is characterized by a large number of mosses, sedges, lichens, and scattered growth of mostly dwarf birch and willow. During the summer the tundra comes to life with a variety of blossoming plants. No true soils can develop in the poorly drained surfaces and the edge of the tundra lies within the permafrost region (perennially frozen soils). Fauna is restricted to the lemming, fox, and some wolves and bears on land, and the seal, polar bear, and the occasional walrus in the artic seas. The reindeer lives in the broad border zone to the south in winter, and uses the open tundra in summer only. The tundra is also home for numerous mosquitoes, flies, and birds.
Steppe. The transitional zone of the steppe is particularly well developed in the lower Danube region and across southern European U.S.S.R. In the north it is referred to as forest steppe because of the scattering of oak forests amid the open grasslands. Farther south the open grasslands, with characteristic black soil (Russ. Chernozem, “black earth”), lend themselves well to the growth of cereals. Toward the southeast the grasslands become more and more scattered and turn to semidesert, with rainfall of less than 10 in. only in the extreme southeast of European U.S.S.R.